Disruptive School Students - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 1 Words: 271 Downloads: 2 Date added: 2017/09/15 Category Advertising Essay Topics: School Essay Did you like this example? Disruptive school students have a negative influence on others. Students who are noisy and disobedient should be grouped together and taught separately. Do you agree or disagree? Give reasons for your answer and include any relevant examples from your own knowledge or experience. Answer It is generally accepted that some student making noisy and behave badly cause trouble and get effect negative in the class for others. As a result teacher and other students find difficulties to continue study with them. However, it seems to me that it is not a best solution to take these students out and grouped them for studying separately. If we do so, they are less likely to be considered as a good person in their future life and hardly recover from that bad reputation. Moreover, they are only limited to meet only friends having such bad behaviour and their mentality tends to become worse by copying each other. This can then also cause the problems for the society. We should find out their back ground reasons for doing so. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Disruptive School Students" essay for you Create order Perhaps their parents are divorced and this unfortunate family problem affects their mentality. Perhaps they need more attention from others in some ways. In addition, teacher or teaching method couldn’t motivate them while the lessons are boring. Some people argue that they should learn to put up with the boring environment and need to consider for the normal students who are being disrupted. Having discussed above situations, we should try to find out either a suitable class room management or a way of consultation for them to solve this problem rather than taught them separately.

The Best Economic Environment for Inflation Targeting

Introduction: In the past two decades, a multitude of countries, including Canada and Australia have instituted â€Å"explicit inflation targeting† (Svensson, 1996, p.1) for fear of the high cost of â€Å"volatile inflation† (FreedmanLaxton, 2009, p. 6).Mishkin offered the definition of inflation targeting (IT). It is a monetary policy strategy intended to achieve price stability within a specific range (Mishkin,2000).As is concisely demonstrated by Mishkin, IT â€Å"establishes a transparent and credible commitment† to the precision of the future â€Å"numerical objective†(Mishkin,2008).Nonetheless, it is not a prudential policy. It is prone to encounter the predicament of â€Å"long and variable lags† of â€Å"implementing and monitoring† the policy (Svensson,†¦show more content†¦In general, an independent, transparent and credible central bank, â€Å"strong fiscal position†, sound financial system with rigorous regulation and supervisio n and flexible exchange rate is vital. Furthermore, a more effective strategy is supposed to â€Å"phase in† following successful disinflation (Mishkin, 2000, p.106-p.107). Why do these factors foster the best environment for IT? How can they fit into countries adopting IT? When it comes to the performance of IT, Scott Roger concluded,† There is certain disparity in performance between the low and high income countries during disinflation, but similarity during stable inflation† (Roger, 2009, p.16). (Figure4)It seems to me that two groups both have insufficiency in terms of the background of IT. With reference to the accountability of CB, the operation should be free from political influence and entail forward-looking gauge (Roger, 2009). In this respect, the New Zealand successfully brought down the inflation rate from above 10% to below 2% thanks to the independent implementation of CB and â€Å"hierarchical mandate for CB with price stability† (Orphanides,2009,p.4). Relating to the fiscal position, the surplus in fiscal balance guarantees the success of IT in Chile without the inclination of fiscal dominance followed by expansionar y monetary policy and the devaluation of currency in some developed countries (Mishkin, 2000).Show MoreRelatedHow Companies Maximize Profits1591 Words   |  6 Pagessupply, and analysing consumers’ demands. However, there are number of economic factors that hinder this operation. These factors are government regulations, rate of interest, exchange rate, trade cycles, general price level, employment and income, economic growth, and supply and demand. Economics consists of macroeconomics and microeconomics. The former analyses national economy and offers knowledge about the business environment (Samuelson Nordhaus 2010, p.5). Macroeconomics centres on the overallRead MoreTurkey, Ukraine, Russia, And Poland Essay859 Words   |  4 Pages1. 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Essay Written Com Free Essays

string(99) " o Are at increased risk of developing chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and cancer as adults\." Cigarette Smoking and Its Health Risks. Why do I need to know about the health risks of cigarette smoking? Cigarette smoking is the most preventable cause of illness and death. Cigarettes are filled with nicotine, which acts like a poison in your body. We will write a custom essay sample on Essay Written Com or any similar topic only for you Order Now What are the health risks of cigarette smoking? You may have breathing problems that make it difficult for you to do daily activities or play sports. You have a higher risk of bone fractures because smoking can cause osteoporosis (brittle bones). If you fall asleep with a lit cigarette, you can start a fire. Cigarette smoking can also cause the following health problems: Cancer: Smoking increases your risk of many kinds of cancer. The most common cancers are lung, lip, mouth, or throat cancer. Heart and blood vessel disease: The nicotine in tobacco causes an increase in your heart rate and blood pressure. Nicotine also causes your blood vessels to narrow. This can lead to blood clots in your heart or brain and caused a heart attack or stroke. Cigarette smoke has carbon monoxide in it. This can decrease the amount of oxygen flowing to your heart and other organs. Lung disease: The chemicals in cigarette smoke can damage your lungs. This causes a buildup of dirt and waste products in your lungs. Many people who smoke have a long-term cough as a result. Cigarette smoking may also cause long-term lung infections or diseases, such as asthma, emphysema, or chronic bronchitis. You are also at higher risk for respiratory illnesses, such as colds or pneumonia. Gastrointestinal disease: Cigarette smoking increases the amount of acid in your stomach. This can cause an ulcer or gastric reflux. Women and smoking: You have a higher risk of heart and blood vessel disease if you smoke and take birth control pills. The risk is more serious is you are 35 years or older. You may have a harder time getting pregnant if you smoke. If you are pregnant and smoke, you have a higher risk of miscarriage or having a stillborn baby. Babies born to mothers who smoke often weigh less and are at higher risk of Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS). Why should I quit smoking? Your health will improve and your risks for many diseases will decrease. Your breath, clothes, and hair will no longer smell like smoke. Tobacco will no longer stain your teeth. Tobacco smoke is dangerous to others. If you quit, you will decrease the risks to those around you, such as your children or family members. Health Effects of Cigarette Smoking Health Effects Fact Sheets Overview Smoking harms nearly every organ of the body. Smoking causes many diseases and reduces the health of smokers in general. Smoking and Death Smoking causes death. †¢ The adverse health effects from cigarette smoking account for an estimated 443,000 deaths, or nearly one of every five deaths, each year in the United States. ,3 †¢ More deaths are caused each year by tobacco use than by all deaths from human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), illegal drug use, alcohol use, motor vehicle injuries, suicides, and murders combined. 2,4 †¢ Smoking causes an estimated 90% of all lung cancer deaths in men and 80% of all lung cancer deaths in women. 1 †¢ An estimated 90% of all deaths from chronic obstructive lung disease are caused by smoking. 1 Smoking and Increased Health Risks Compared with nonsmokers, smoking is estimated to increase the risk of †¢ coronary heart disease by 2 to 4 times, †¢ stroke by 2 to 4 times, men developing lung cancer by 23 times, †¢ Women developing lung cancer by 13 times, and dying from chronic obstructive lung diseases (such as chronic bronchitis and emphysema) by 12 to 13 times. Smoking and Cardiovascular Disease †¢ Smoking causes coronary heart disease, the leading cause of death in the United States. 1 †¢ Cigarette smoking causes reduced circulation by narrowing the blood vessels (arteries) and puts smokers at risk of developing peripheral vascular disease (i. e. , obstruction of the large arteries in the arms and legs that can cause a range of problems from pain to tissue loss or gangrene). Smoking causes abdominal aortic aneurysm (i. e. , a swelling or weakening of the main artery of the body—the aorta—where it runs through the abdomen ). 1 Smoking and Respiratory Disease †¢ Smoking causes lung cancer. †¢ Smoking causes lung diseases (e. g. , emphysema, bronchitis, chronic airway obstruction) by damaging the airways and alveoli (i. e. , small air sacs) of the lungs. Smoking and Cancer Smoking causes the following cancers: †¢ Acute myeloid leukemia †¢ Bladder cancer †¢ Cancer of the cervix †¢ Cancer of the esophagus †¢ Kidney cancer †¢ Cancer of the larynx (voice box) †¢ Lung cancer Cancer of the oral cavity (mouth) †¢ Pancreatic cancer †¢ Cancer of the pharynx (throat) †¢ Stomach cancer Smoking and Other Health Effects Smoking has many adverse reproductive and early childhood effects, including increased risk for— †¢ infertility, †¢ preterm delivery, †¢ stillbirth, †¢ low birth weight, and †¢ Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS). †¢ Smoking is associated with the following adverse health effects: †¢ Postmenopausal women who smoke have lower bone density than women who never smoked. †¢ Women who smoke have an increased risk for hip fracture than women who never smoked. Smoking and Others (Passive Smoking)If you smoke, one good reason to give up smoking is to benefit those who live and work with you. If you cannot give up, you should make every effort to keep cigarette smoke away from other people. On this page †¢ How does smoking affect other people? †¢ Some statistics †¢ How can I stop smoking? †¢ Further help and information †¢ References How does smoking affect other people? †¢ Children and babies who live in a home where there is a smoker: o Are more prone to asthma, and ear, nose and chest infections. o Have an increased risk of dying from cot death (sudden infant death syndrome). Are more likely than average to become smokers themselves when older. o On average, do less well at reading and reasoning skills compared to children in smoke-free homes, even at low levels of smoke exposure. o Are at increased risk of developing chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and cancer as adults. You read "Essay Written Com" in category "Essay examples" †¢ Passive smoking of adults. You have an increased risk of lung cancer and heart disease if you are exposed to other people smoking for long periods of time. For example, the risk of developing lung cancer is increased by about 20-30% in people who are regularly exposed to other people’s cigarette smoke. Cigarette smoke is also an irritant, and can make asthma and other conditions worse. †¢ Unborn babies. Smoking when you are pregnant can harm your unborn baby. See separate leaflet called Pregnancy and Smoking for details. Some statistics the overall health impact of passive smoking is large. Although the health risks from passive smoking are small for the individual in comparison with the health risks from active smoking, the public health consequences of passive smoking are high due to the large numbers of people exposed. For example, passive smoking by people living with smokers in the UK increases the risk of death from coronary heart disease by 50-60%. It is estimated to cause around 2,700 deaths per year in people aged 20-64, and a further 8,000 deaths per year among people aged 65 or older. It is estimated that children breathing in other people’s cigarette smoke resulted in 300,000 GP visits and 9,500 hospital admissions in 2011 in the UK. Up to five million children are thought to be regularly exposed to secondhand smoke in the home. The results of a survey on children’s views on smoking ere published on the Department of Health’s website. The survey revealed that children want smoke-free lives. The survey found that: †¢ 98% of children wish their parents would stop smoking. †¢ 82% of children wish their parents wouldn’t smoke in front of them at home. †¢ 78% of children wished their parents wouldn’t smoke in front of them in the car. †¢ 41 % of children said cigarette smoke made them feel ill. †¢ 42% of children said cigarette smoke made them cough. How can I stop smoking? Compare About 2 in 3 smokers want to stop smoking. Some people can give up easily. Willpower and determination are the most important aspects when giving up smoking. However, nicotine is a drug of addiction and many people find giving up a struggle. Help is available. GPs, practice nurses, or pharmacists can provide information, encouragement, and tips on stopping smoking. Also, throughout the country there are specialist NHS Stop Smoking Clinics which have a good success record in helping people to stop smoking. Your doctor may refer you to one if you are keen to stop smoking. Various medicines can increase your chance of quitting. These include nicotine replacement therapy (NRT) which comes as gums, sprays, patches, tablets, lozenges, and inhalers. You can buy NRT without a prescription. Also, medicines called bupropion (trade name Zyban ®) and varenicline (trade name Champix ®) can help. These are available on prescription. See separate leaflets called Nicotine Replacement Therapy, Bupropion (Zyban ®) and Varenicline (Champix ®). Costa Rica’s Anti-Smoking Law As Strange As Aliens. The newly passed anti-smoking law is as strange as aliens, because everyone knows about them but nobody takes the subject as an absolute truth. Neither is too surprising, for many the law is nothing more than a continuing joke the government plays on its people. For without a doubt, even with the law in place, in Costa Rica â€Å"the smoker continues to be king†, for even the law cannot respond to the call, as the government has been unable to properly inform the public and the institutions responsible to ensure compliance. All the information out there right now is mostly by word of mouth, passed on from one person to another and not necessarily the correctRoberto Castro, of the Direccion de Vigilancia del Ministerio de Salud (Surveillance Directorate of the Ministry of Health) recently said that the Fuerza Publica (polilce) is empowered to issue fines of ? 36. 060 colones to anyone disrespecting the law. But, where is the fine paid? For his part, the director of the Fuerza Publica (chief of the nation’s police force) said that they will wait until the regulations to comply with the law. The regulations are expected within the next 90 days, but many doubt that they will be ready, as legislators pass a law and the government is not ready for its enactment. Again. Just as with the introduction of the tax on corporations that went into effect on January 1, but not payable until April, again, because because the government was caught with its pants down. some place, like medical centres and schools have already banned smoking and have set out their regulations for its enforcement. In some places like elevators, trains, ATM’s, restaurants, cafes, bars and shopping centres, among others smoking is banned. Again, a private initiative which is reinforced with the passing of the anti-smoking law, but without the teeth to bite the smoker who persists. With the law in effect anyone can now demand that law be respected. Customers can complain to the manager of a restaurant, shoppers can call on the mall management and employee on the boss, for example, to have the smoker butt out. But, in reality, how is the complaint handled and who has the authority to ask the smoker to quit? In an effort to simplify the process, ideally the Ministry of Health (Ministerio de Salud) should provide a phone number to either take the complaint or at least to provide information on how to deal with the situation. However, Costa Rica is a country where all that is simple is made difficult. Knowing Costa Ricans there is sure to follow many complaints and without a doubt one or more challenges to the Constitutional Court, smokers allege to be a â€Å"target†. In an ideal Costa Rica, smokers should just quit smoking in public spaces. And if they really care for their health, quit smoking altogether. Thrombosis, hypertension, cancer of the esophagus and pancreas, tachycardia, emphysema, lung cancer and bronchitis are just some of the many ills caused by tobacco smoking. Hopefully the ? 20 colones tax on each and ever cigarette sold will hurt the smoker where it hurts the most, their pocketbook. Or at the very least fund programs to help patients with cancer and prevention campaigns. This is a time for the current administration to really show that it can tie up its pants and act in the best interest of the public by applying the law and get rid of an epidemic in which only a few get rich and benefit from the death of others. The government has a great opportunity here to show that it can act and quickly by introducing the regulations way ahead of the three months set out in the legislation, introduce concise guidelines and make the public aware of the law and its cost for not respecting it. Costa rica? s law The number of countries  with anti-smoking laws is growing, and Costa Rica might soon join the ranks. Lawmakers are debating a bill that would ban smoking in some public places and raise the tax on cigarettes. Costa Rica has been trying to pass the ban since 2008, but the bill has couldn’t get through the legislature. If it finally passes, Costa Rica won’t be alone among Latin American countries with anti-smoking laws. Of course, just because laws are on the books, doesn’t mean everyone is snuffing out their smokes. Some 14. 2 percent of Costa Ricans smoke, most between ages 20 and 39, according to the Costa Rican Social Security System. Casual smokers proliferate in the country’s nightlife. But that could change soon. Lawmakers last week passed a bill that will ban smoking in all public spaces, including bus and taxi stops, public buildings, restaurants and bars. The legislation goes further: It prohibits the sale of individual cigarettes; adds a 4-cent tax per cigarette, bumping up the price of most 20-cigarette packs from around $2 to $2. 0; bans cigarette advertising; and mandates that most of the box must carry graphic or textual health warnings. The bill will be reviewed by the Constitutional Chamber of the Supreme Court before it can get the president’s signature and go into law. Costa Rica is considered a progressive country on health and environment policies, but it’s been slow to reform its lax smoking rules. If the court gives the green light, Costa Rica will beco me the 10th Latin American country to enact a law following guidelines set by the World Health Organization for 100 percent smoke-free public spaces. The legislation is expected to take effect in mid-summer, giving businesses and government some time to adjust. Residents too will have time to cope. â€Å"Every person who comes to a bar here, they smoke and they drink, wherever they go,† Sanchez, 22, said. â€Å"I think it’s a law that’s very stupid. †Aleman, 20, said she’s pleased that inconsiderate smokers will be stopped from carelessly blowing smoke into someone’s face. Still, she sees the law as too strict, since bars cannot maintain a smoking section. But if there’s no area or smokers, she always could walk outside to smoke? Or: â€Å"I’ll smoke less,† Aleman said. â€Å"Go outside to smoke — why bother? It could be raining and freezing outside. That would be the worst. †Her statement typifies why 100 percent smoke-free policies have been successful in other countries. Research shows businesses don’t fold or lose huge profits over a loss of ci garette-smoking clientele. The places simply get cleaner. The most desperate effort to rid Costa Rica of ineffective smoking laws started almost four years ago. Lawmakers helped teach doctors in the National Anti-Tobacco Network how to be politicians. The doctors, in turn, negotiated behind the scenes with lawmakers presenting the grimmest of facts and telling them â€Å"this is how the tobacco industry manipulates the truth. † The Social Security System (Caja) conducted a poll showing 93 percent of Costa Ricans supported laws for a smoke-free public. The momentum did little to dull the influence of the tobacco industry lobby that had dictated smoking policies in the country since the 1980s. Only on Monday, long after lawmakers who spearheaded the movement reached their term limits and exited office, did a toughened anti-smoking bill pass the Legislative Assembly. Advocates garnered enough support in the assembly to pass – in a 46-2 vote – a comprehensive anti-tobacco bill on Monday, winning at last an uphill struggle. â€Å"We have demonstrated to the tobacco companies that we are not too small and so weak like they believed we were,† said Teresita Arrieta, of the Alcoholism and Drug Abuse Institute (IAFA). The bill bans smoking in places such as bars, restaurants, public buildings, bus stops and taxi stands. Individual cigarettes will be taxed an extra ? 20 (4 cents). The bill requires cigarette packs to display text and photo warnings on at least 50 percent of the box. The legislation strengthens some of the weakest tobacco-use laws in Latin America. One question in particular lingers in the minds of skeptics. Can the law be enforced? The bill still awaits the signature of President Laura Chinchilla, and then must be published in the official government newspaper La Gaceta before the rules become official. From there, a 90-day adjustment period begins before fines go into effect. Many expect the law’s publication will come around March 15, meaning the day cigarettes must be extinguished from public spaces would be in mid-June. In that time, lawmakers and health officials will determine the reglamentos, or regulations, that define how the law will be implemented. Health Vice Minister Sisy Castillo, who was a major force in pushing the bill through, displayed confidence that the country can create rules that establishments and people   will not have trouble following. â€Å"We are already working on the [reglamentos],† Castillo said. We are far along with these regulations in regards to law enforcement. †Ã‚  She said the Health Ministry has met with members of the National Police and Chief Prosecutor’s Office to discuss how to handle those caught violating the law, and the best way to supervise bars and other localities where smoking will be banned. Castillo emphasized to The Tico Times that the reglamentos will address foreigners, including tourists, who disobey the smoking law. Large percentages of the cigarette taxes will be earmarked toward treating tobacco-related illnesses and funding programs that assist people in quitting smoking. In 2010, the Caja spent nearly $146 million on health expenses tied to smoking and tobacco-related illnesses. Tobacco plays a large role in cardiovascular illnesses, one of the country’s leading causes of death. Almost 15 percent of the country smokes, according to a Caja survey. Those caught smoking in a prohibited area can face a fine of ? 36,060 ($70). Producers, sellers and advertisers not following the regulations can be hit with a fine of ? 3. 6 million ($7,022). The penalty for selling single cigarettes, packs with fewer than 20 cigarettes or tobacco products to minors would be ? 80,000 ($351). The government will have the power to close businesses with outstanding fines. As the law moves closer to enactment, advocates expect to parry lawsuits taken up on behalf of the tobacco industry and the Costa Rican Chamber of Restaurants and Affiliates – a longtime mouthpiece of tobacco companies that oversees bars and nightclubs. Carmen Granados, a Citizen Action Party la wmaker, believes the country has taken the necessary steps to prevent legal action by tobacco companies from succeeding. She worked on a committee headed by Rita Chaves of the Access Without Exclusion Party to construct the current version of the bill. When the original bill was written, draftees invited experts to vet every aspect of   it, even bringing in legal advisers from the U. S. ’s George Washington University, in Washington, D. C. , to observe the proposal. Moreover, the bill follows standards set by the World Health Organization, and has been adopted in nine other Latin American countries, including Brazil, which became the largest country in the world to put into practice such measures, in December. We should not fear lawsuits, because if we did a good job, then this law will be unaffected,† Granados said. â€Å"Yes, tobacco companies are going to try to go after the law †¦ but it’s shielded so nobody will touch it. †Lawmakers opposed to the bill attempted to halt its passage Monday. The passage came in spite of a challenge by 10 lawmakers to send the bill t o the Constitutional Chamber of the Supreme Court (Sala IV) to review the constitutionality of the reforms. The Legislative Assembly did not receive a notification from the Sala IV in time to prevent the vote. Granados said tobacco manufacturers still can challenge specific articles in court, and the Sala IV can decide whether to review the suits. Tabacalera Costarricense, an affiliate of Philip Morris International, has stated the law could result in an increase in contraband cigarettes in Costa Rica due to the cigarette tax increase. A lawsuit is expected about that issue. Anti-tobacco advocates in Costa Rica dismiss the argument about a flourishing cigarette black market, saying research shows that it is simply untrue. Studies also show that in countries with similar reforms, business rarely, if ever, suffers as a result of the ban. IAFA’s Smoke-Free Spaces Program created plenty of tobacco-free settings in sports arenas, restaurants and malls before the law’s adoption. Arrieta, who heads the program, believes the difficulty of transitioning from a country where smoking is accepted to one that prohibits it has been exaggerated. This law is designed to protect public health and does not infringe on individual rights, since a person does not have the privilege to endanger the health of another, Arrieta said. She already has seen it work in Costa Rica’s notoriously hazy bars. She visited a place called Blue Moon in Cartago, east of San Jose. Smokers took cigarette breaks outside. The inside was packed with clients. Blue Moon manager Michael Mattey said the bar opened in July and remains successful, an image of how other bars might thrive in a Costa Rica free of smoking. â€Å"It seems all the people who come like it for the same reason, because they don’t smoke,† Mattey said. â€Å"But people who smoke come too, and they also seem to like it. Who knew? : The adverse health effects from cigarette smoking account for an estimated 443,000 deaths each year in the United States How to cite Essay Written Com, Essay examples

Acid Rain (3433 words) Essay Example For Students

Acid Rain (3433 words) Essay Acid RainWhat is acid rain? Acid rain is the term for pollution caused when sulfur andnitrogen dioxides combine with atmospheric moisture. The term acid rain isslightly misleading, and would be more accurate if deemed enhanced acid rain,as rain occurs acidic naturally. Acidity is measured on what is know as the pHscale. Fourteen is the most basic, seven is the most neutral, and zero is themost acidic. Pure rain has a pH level of 7, which is exactly neutral. Theacidity of rain is determined by the pH of pure water in reaction withatmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide, resulting in carbonic acid. Theseparticles partly dissociate to produce hydrogen ions and bicarbonate ions. Abicarbonate atom is an ion formed by one hydrogen atom, one carbon at atom, andthree oxygen atoms, and is very effective in natural waters at neutralizinghydrogen ions and reducing acidity. The dissociation results in the naturalacidity of pure rain, which is moderately acidic at a pH of 5.7. Rain less than 5.7 is considered acid rain, meaning it has reacted with acidic atmosphericgases other than carbon dioxide, such as sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide. Sulfur dioxide is produced by electric utilities, industrial, commercial andresidential heating, smelters, diesel engines and marine and rail transport,which creates sulfuric acid in rain. Nitrogen dioxide will also react with therain, caused largely by transportation (cars, trucks, planes, etc.) and electricutilities, producing nitric acid. There is a certain degree of naturallyoccurring acidity in rain water. This acid is from reaction with alkalinechemicals, found in soils, lakes and stream, and can occasionally occur when avolcano erupts as well. Bacterial action in soils and degasing from oceanicplankton also contribute to the acidity found in rain. More than 90% of thesulfur and 95% of the nitrogen emissions which occur in North America are due tothe pollution created by humans.1 How Is Acid Rain Formed? Acid rain consistsmainly of acids formed in the atmosphere. It consists of the oxides of sulfur,SO2 and SO3, and of nitrogen NO and NO2. Let us examine the major contributor to acid rain, sulfur oxides. Natural sources which emit sulfur dioxide includevolcanoes, sea spray, plankton and rotting vegetation. Despite these naturaloccurrences, the burning of fossil fuels (such as coal and oil) can be largelyblamed for the emissions. The chemical reactions begin as energy from sunlight,in the form of photons, hit ozone molecules (O3) to form free oxygen (O2), aswell as single reactive oxygen atoms (O). The oxygen atoms react with watermolecules (H2O), producing electrically charged, negative hydroxyl radicals(HO). These hydroxyl radicals are responsible for oxidizing sulfur dioxide andnitrogen dioxide, which produces sulfuric acid and nitric acid. Some particleswill settle to the ground (in the form of acid deposition) or vegetation canabsorb some of the SO2 gas directly from the atmosphere. When sulfur dioxidecomes in contact with the atmosphere, it oxidizes and forms a sulfate ion. Itbecomes sulfuric acid as it joins with hydrogen atoms in the air and falls do wnto earth. Oxidation occurs most in clouds, especially in heavily polluted air,where other compounds such as ammonia and ozone help to catalyze the reaction,increasing the amount of sulfur dioxide changing to sulfuric acid. Not all ofthe sulfur dioxide is converted to sulfuric acid, and it is not uncommon for asubstantial amount to float up into the atmosphere, move to another area, andreturn to earth as sulfur dioxide, unconverted. S (in fossil fuels) + O2 =* SO22 SO2 + O2 =* 2 SO3 Much of the sulfur dioxide is converted to sulfur trioxidein the atmosphere SO3 + H2O =* H2SO4 The sulfur trioxide can then dissolvewithin water to form sulfuric acid Nitric oxide and nitric dioxide are mainlyfrom power plants and exhaust fumes. Similar to sulfur dioxide, reactions areheavily catalyzed in heavily polluted clouds where iron, manganese, ammonia andhydrogen peroxide are present. Also, the formation of nitric acid can triggerfurther reactions which release new hydroxyl radicals to generate more sulfuricacid. The following is a typical reaction, which is direct combination ofnitrogen and oxygen at the high temperature inside a car engine. N2 + O2 + heat=* 2NO 2NO + O2 =* 2NO2 This nitrogen monoxide immediately reacts with oxygenand forms nitrogen dioxide in the following reaction 3NO2 + H2O =* 2HNO3 (aq) +NO The nitrogen will then dissolve in water in the atmosphere and produce nitricacid There are several other potential contributors to acid rain. These includeoxidation by products of alkene-ozone reactions, oxidation by reactions of NxOyspecies and oxidation by peroxy radicals. Each of these reactions, however proveto be minor contributors and are rather insignificant. How Is Acid Rain Harmful?Environmental Hazards Aquatic Ecosystems Acid rain has an effect on virtuallyall ecosystems it touches. Perhaps the most prominent, and equally as troublingis the harmful results it produces when in contact with lakes, streams andponds. Scientists studying the effects of acid r ain went to a lake about 135 kmaway from the Ontario- Manitoba border called Lake 223. This lake, so far northacid rain did not reach it, was extremely healthy, and was a perfect setting toexplore the effects of acid rain on aquatic ecosystems. In 1974, scientistsbegan to add sulfuric acid into the lake. The acid was added very slowly, and itwas four years later when they saw a major change. The freshwater shrimp beganto die out. Fathead minnows stopped reproducing and began to vanish. As thescientists continued adding acid to Lake 223 in low amounts, large algae matsbegan to form and crayfish became unhealthy and died. Seven years after thebeginning of the experiment, the lake trout stopped reproducing, and most of thefish species, leeches, crawfish and mayflies began to die. In 1984, thescientists stopped adding the acid. Without the addition of deadly sulfuricacid, the lake slowly began to recover. Some of the fish species began torecover, however some of the scientists estimated it would take one hundredyears for the lake to fully recover, even without the addition of any more acid. Fish can still live in a lake with a low acid level, however they will get sickand not grow to proper proportions. Often the fish will not reproduce, andeventually, as the acid level increases, all the fish will die. The acid willalso leach metals from the bottom of the lake. There are metals containedwithin the mud and rocks of the lake bottom, however they remain not dangerousas long as they are not released. The acid will draw out these harmful metalsand dissolve them in the water, resulting in the deterioration and disappearanceof a species. One of these damaging metals is aluminum, which will coat and burnthe gills of the fish as it intakes the polluted water. Some fish found inacidic lakes contain higher levels of mercury in their bodies, which is harmfulto humans, resulting in the government telling society to limit the amount offish they eat from certain lakes and rivers. If the numbers of one species orgroup of species changes in response to acidification, the ecosystem of t heentire body of water is likely to be affected through the predator-preyrelationships. Let us examine how acid rain is dangerous to fish. A freshwaterfishs respiration consists of a trade of hydrogen ions (H+) in their bloodfor sodium ions (Na+) from the water around them. If the concentration ofhydrogen ions in the water is increased, which is essentially what happens whenpH falls, there are (proportionally) fewer sodium ions. Fish are forced toabsorb more hydrogen while finding it harder to obtain sodium. The acidity oftheir blood increases, while the salt content drops. An experiment involvingbrown trout showed that at a pH of 5.2 or lower, this process was fatal to thisspecies, and is likely deadly to many other trout species. The following chartshows the steps typical to freshwater fish as the acidity increases. (Fig 1-1)ACIDITY LEVEL (pH) EFFECTS ON AQUATIC LIFE 7 Neutral, H+ and H- are in balance6.8 Shells of clams and snails become thinner, due to lack of hazardous calciumi ons in the water 6.6 The viability of eggs of the fathead minnow is reduced,rain can have and fewer eggs hatch 6.5 Lake trout begin to have difficultyreproducing, clams and snails become scarcer, green algae growth increases 6Several clam and snail species disappear, several trout species populationsdecrease, the smooth newt is gone, smallmouth bass, walleyes and spottedsalamanders have difficulty reproducing, several mayfly species cease to layeggs 5.8 Copepods (a critical link of crustaceans in the marine food chain) aregone, crayfish have trouble regrowing exoskeleton after molting 5.7 Severalalgae species decrease, while filamentous green algae increases, planktondecreases 5.5 Rainbow trout, fathead minnows and smallmouth bass loseconsiderable population, walleyes, brook trout, roach, lake trout and shinersdont reproduce, leeches and mayfly larvae vanish. 5.4 Crayfish reproductivityis impaired. 5 Snail and clams are extinct. All but one species of crayfish areextinct, brook trou t, walleyes and most bullfrogs are gone, most fish speciesexperience reproduction difficulties, zooplankton population begins to drop,green and green-blue algae mats have largely spread 4.8 Leopard frog numbersdecline 4.5 Mayflies and stoneflies vanish, a slowing in growth rate and oxygenuptake of bacteria is notable 4.2 The common toad disappears 4 The oxygen outputof Lobelia plants declines 75% 3.5 Virtually all clams, snails, frogs, fish andcrayfish vanish 2.5 Only a few species of acid-tolerant midges, bacteria andfungi are alive 2 In practical terms, the lake is sterile Two hundred and twentylakes in Ontario have been found acidified, meaning their pH is less that 5.1year round.2 Terrestrial Plant Life It is much more difficult to solve themystery of forest destruction compared to that of a lake. This is partiallybecause trees live so much longer than fish do, and acid rain damage in treesmay not show up for thirty or forty years. It is also very difficult toreplicate forest co nditions in a laboratory, such as insects, cold winters,pollution, elevation and abrupt changes in rainfall. Each of these conditionsput stress on the trees and can be considered variables. Many scientists areconvinced that because of the complexity of a forest ecosystem, it is nearlyimpossible to prove the death of forests is due to pollution in the form of acidrain, but deduce from many experiments it is a main factor in forestdestruction. Deciduous trees are like air filters, and screen particles thatpass through the air around them. These particles collect on the leaves of thetree, and studies have shown that when these particles contain acid they cancause damage to the leaves. The leaves are the part of the tree that help makefood, hence any damage to the leaves will result in harm to the health of theentire tree. Coniferous trees are vulnerable to the harmful effects of acid rainas well. The trees needles are designed to nourish the tree after they fall tothe ground. Each need le houses whole colonies of microscopic bacteria and algaethat help the tree change nitrogen into food at the roots. Acid rain will oftenburn away this material, thereby reducing adequate food supply, and weakeningthe trees health. After the damage has been done to leaves and needles, acidrain harms the trees even more through the soil. Soil has a level of acid. Acidin the soil can do damage to the trees by releasing aluminum, which, once incontact with acid, becomes highly poisonous to forests. The aluminum will enterthe trees hairlike roots, choking them, and when these become clogged, theupper branches are no longer nourished. Even though there may be plenty ofmoisture in the soil, the tree can die of thirst. Scientists have discoveredthat the aluminum content in soil has tripled since the 1960s.3 Acid rain alsokills important organisms on the forest floor. The process of decomposition isinterrupted as the acid kills many of the bacteria and fungi that live on theforest floor. At a pH level of 4.0, the earthworm dies, further damaging thedecomposition process. Without earthworms and bacteria to decompose the debrisconsisting of animal and bird droppings, twigs and dead leaves, the materialscontinue to build on the forest floor. When debris builds up, seedlings from thetrees are not able to survive, because they can not work their way down to thesoil to root. This causes the forest to slowly disappear, as older trees die,and the forest will not be able to rejuvenate itself. Acid rain is hardest ontrees high up in mountains, because it is often covered in mist or fog,literally bathing the trees in an acidic atmosphere. Trees also suffer becauseof changes in the soil. Acid rains leach metals (draw metals out of mud androcks) in the soil, and the trees in turn intake these harmful metals throughtheir roots. Figure 1-2 shows the damage that acid rain can to do a forest HumanHealth It is known that the earth contains many metals that are potentiallydangerous to h umans, such as lead, mercury, and aluminum. Most of the time thesemetals are harmless because they are in the soil, bonded to other elements. Theproblem occurs when acid detaches these metals from the rocks and soils, and canbe carried deep into the ground and make their way to underground streams. Thesestreams eventually connect to our water sources. Medical researchers have foundthese metals can be dangerous, and on rare occasion, is even fatal. Aluminum hasbeen found to kill people who have kidney problems, and can also collect inbrain tissue. Some scientists even suspect that aluminum deposits on the braincause Alzheimers disease. (A disease that results in memory loss, nervoussystem problems, and death. Acid rain is known to irritate the whole respiratorysystem, beginning with mucous membranes in the nose and throat, all the way totissue in the lungs. Consequently, acid rain has an increased effect on peoplewith respiratory problems. The U.S. Council on Environmental Quality es timateshealth-related problems due to acid precipitation cost the United States $2billion per year.4 In August 1987, over one hundred people were treated for eye,throat, and mouth irritation when 1.8 metric tonnes of highly toxic sulfurdioxide gas leaked from an Inco plant near Sudbury, Ontario. Even Fig 1-2 Thispicture shows how a coniferous forest has been virtually destroyed. Acid rain isblamed for the destruction of terrestrial ecosystems around the world. withoutaccidents, the sulfur dioxide regularly emitted from Inco smokestacks has beenlinked to chronic bronchitis in Inco employees.5 Drinking Water Acid raindamages drinking water in various ways. Thus far, amounts of metals in drinkingwater have been minimal, however the fact that metals even leak into the wateris troubling to scientists. Since metals remain in the body once ingested, overtime, small amounts accumulate into large quantities, and it has yet to beconcluded how large an amount will prove to be harmful to humans . Acid raincauses damage by loosening metals off metal water pipes. Modern plumbing usesplastic tubing, but older systems have copper pipes. The copper pipes are heldtogether by a mixture of tin and lead. Lead is known to be extremely dangerousto humans, even in small amounts, and will cause damage to the brain and nervoussystem. A study that was done in Ontario found that water sitting in plumbingpipes for ten days contained hazardous levels of copper and lead. This discoverycould be a widespread danger, since often people will go on vacation and notshut off the plumbing, allowing water to sit and absorb these dangerous metals. Marriage And Aging EssayAcid rain can also dissolve the reinforcements that occur around large waterpipes. In some parts of the United States, asbestos is used to reinforce thecement bases that hold water pipes. Asbestos is not dangerous when bound to thecement, but is highly dangerous when separated, and has been linked to cancerand other serious diseases. Many health officials worry that loose asbestos willfind its way to the citys water when acid rain comes in contact with thecement. Effects On Man Made Structures Scientists are becoming increasinglyconcerned with acid rains destruction of the built environment. There areobjects in our built environment that are irreplaceable. Historic landmarks andstatues, old cathedrals and temples, paintings and sculpture all are part ofthe built environment and are slowly being damaged. Some of these objects arepractical, making life easier, safer or more comfortable. Many factors determinehow much damage acid rain will do, including the am ount of rain, the location,and direction of wind. All influence the amount of corrosion done. Areas thathave a large amount fog or humidity tend to suffer more than dry areas, which iswhy many steel bridges located over water get rusted and corroded by acid. Whenmetal is decayed, it cannot take the same amount of stress of weight as when itwas originally created. Acid rain has been blamed in several collapses ofbridges around the world. Acid rain corrodes the steel track used on railroads,thus the tracks must be constantly checked. Metal in air planes can also beeaten away by acid rain. The United States Air Force spends more that $1 billionevery year to repair or replace damaged parts.6 A study done in Sweden showedthat metal rusts four times faster in areas that receive a lot of acid rain. This figure is staggering, and yet, metal is not the only material damaged byacid rain. Houses and buildings made of brick and stone are affected as well. Acid rain can dissolve the mortar, which is used in cement to hold brickstogether. When the mortar is worn away, the bricks crumble more easily, becausethey shift and cannot stay intact against the heavy weight of the brickspressuring from above. The corrosive effects of acid rain are particularlyobvious on limestone, because it is composed of calcium carbonate, which ishighly reactive with acid rain. Tombstones made of marble (which ismetamorphosed or heated limestone) have been badly damaged, while oldertombstones made of slate remain intact. Famous buildings such as the Taj Mahal,The United States Capitol building and the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, areall being continually damaged by acid rain. Statues made of bronze and copperare particularly susceptible to corrosion. These statues turn green naturally,and this covering, called a patina, acts as a protective shield against theelements. Acid rain eats away at the patina, and where the acid dissolves thegreen covering, it leav es a streaky black coat. This process ruins statuesthroughout the world. How Does Acid Rain Affect the Economy? Canada/AmericanRelations Canada is particularly susceptible to the effects of acid rain. Itsgeographical location places it directly in the path of a large amount of U.S. emission, and the granite bedrock of the Canadian Shield has a poor bufferingquality. (A buffer is a material that can chemically weaken acid soil and isless harmful to the environment, such as lime or baking soda.) The lack of sucha quality renders Eastern Canada highly vulnerable to damage due to UnitedStates pollution. Canada suffers more from acid rain than the United Statesdoes, even though much of the pollution originates in the United States. Acidrain costs Canadians hundreds of millions of dollars every year. To try anddecrease the large amounts of money the pollution is costing tax payers, Canadahas passed laws to force its electrical companies to cut down on harmfulemissions. However, no matter what laws are passed in Canada, it is not possibleto stop U.S. power plants from sending acid in its direction. Figure 1-3displays amounts of emissions created by the United States and Canada. The Gavinpower plant is an excellent example of how the United States sends tonnes ofacid t o Canada every year. Every hour, this power plant burns 600 tonnes ofcoal. The higher the smokestack, the further the dangerous gases will travel,and the Gavin smokestack is 1 103 feet tall.7 Obviously, The Gavin can not besolely blamed for the pollution, but it is power plants such as these that havecaused trouble between the two countries. It is estimated that about 50% of thesulfate deposited in Canada derived from American sources.8 Sixty of the largestplants and thus largest polluters are located in the Ohio Valley, a shortdistance away from vulnerable Canadian land. In 1980, Canada and the UnitedStates signed a Memorandum of Intent, an agreement that both countries wouldmake acid rain control a priority. They both promised to focus on developingideas to cut down the amount of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide emissionsbeing pumped into the air. In the past, Canada has presented devastatingly largefigures to the United States, in an attempt to have them change laws andregulatio ns regarding pollution. Unfortunately, the attempts thus far have beenunsuccessful, as the US government requests more testing and studies instead ofaltering laws. In the recent past, the negotiations between Canada and UnitedStates representatives have been hardly reminiscent of efforts put forth byCanadian officials. Many U.S. politicians still qualify acid rain as a minorproblem, and it is treated as such, according to Raymond Robinson, chairman ofthe Canadian Environmental Assembly.